Social and Legal Studios
ISSN 2617-4162
e-ISSN 2617-4170
Publisher: Lviv State University of Internal Affairs
Abstract
The aim of the study was a comprehensive analysis of criminal law mechanisms for countering crimes motivated by religious beliefs, using a criminotheological approach to identify contemporary trends in law enforcement practice, problems, and gaps in current legislation. In the course of the study, criminal law mechanisms for countering crimes motivated by religious beliefs were analysed using examples from Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and European countries. It was established that Kazakhstan showed a tendency towards adapting European standards, taking into account national specificities and the influence of regional factors, while in Pakistan, criminal prosecution was often accompanied by religious-political influence, which hindered an objective legal assessment of the acts. It was summarised that the effectiveness of criminal law counteraction to such crimes largely depended on the level of legal culture, the degree of secularism in the state, and the presence of an interdisciplinary approach. It was concluded that effective counteraction to crimes motivated by religious beliefs required a comprehensive approach combining criminal law, theological, and socio-preventive measures. Using the examples of Kazakhstan, Pakistan, and European countries, it was found that the most resilience in combating such crimes was demonstrated by those states where a balance was maintained between the protection of human rights, the secular nature of public order, and the possibility of state-religious dialogue. At the same time, excessive punitiveness (as in the case of Pakistan) or excessive liberalisation (in some European countries) could both intensify radical sentiments and hinder the criminal prosecution of offenders. Kazakhstan, being positioned between the two models, demonstrated a desire to develop its own strategy based on international experience but still required clearer theoretical and legal foundations
Keywords: religion; social tension; human rights protection; extremism; terrorism; discrimination
Suggested citation
[1] Abbink, J. (2020). Religion and violence in the horn of Africa: Trajectories of mimetic rivalry and escalation between ‘Political Islam’ and the state. Politics Religion & Ideology, 21(2), 194-215. doi: 10.1080/21567689.2020.1754206.
[2] Amit, S., & Kafy, A.-A. (2022). A systematic literature review on preventing violent extremism. Journal of Adolescence, 94(8), 1068-1080. doi: 10.1002/jad.12095.
[3] Begalinova, K., Ashilov, M., & Begalinov, A. (2020). Religious extremism in Kazakhstan: Threats of spreading and means of opposition. Central Asia and the Caucasus, 21(4), 124-131. doi: 10.37178/ca-c.20.4.12.
[4] Ben Yair, Y., & Ronel, N. (2024). The social response: Punishment and rehabilitation. In Spiritual Jewish criminology: Theoretical perspective and applications for offenders rehabilitation (pp. 67-105). Cham: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-63172-6_6.
[5] Bishmanov, K., & Orynbekov, N. (2022). Opportunities and trends in the emergence of religious extremism and terrorism in Kazakhstan society. Eurasian Journal of Religious Studies, 30(2), 56-67. doi: 10.26577/ejrs.2022.v30.i2.r6.
[6] Bishmanov, K., & Orynbekov, N. (2023). Enhancing religious literacy to counter extremism and terrorism in Kazakhstan’s religious context. Eurasian Journal of Religious Studies, 34(2), 23-33. doi: 10.26577//EJRS.2023.v34.i2.r3.
[7] Buribayev, Y., Turlykhankyzy, K., Kalkayeva, N., Shakenov, D., & Khamzina, Z. (2024). Strategic development and comprehensive guidelines for state policy in Kazakhstan’s religious sphere. International Journal of Religion, 5(3), 40-51. doi: 10.61707/77nmvb36.
[8] Chigozie, A.J. (2025). Inter-faith dialogue and conflict resolution in Nigeria: A study of christian-muslim relations in plateau state. IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities, 11(1), 86-99.
[9] Collins, N., Doumani Dupuy, P.N., & Zamanbekova, A. (2024). Democratically digging together: A study of archaeology and civil society. Journal of Eurasian Studies. doi: 10.1177/18793665241270821.
[10] Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan. (1995, August). Retrieved from https://www.akorda.kz/en/constitution-of-the-republic-of-kazakhstan-50912.
[11] Criminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan. (2014, July). Retrieved from https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/K970000167_.
[12] Dachak, H. (2021). The principle of proportionality of crime and punishment in international documents. International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding, 8(4), 684-694. doi: 10.18415/ijmmu.v8i4.2661.
[13] Daugherty, C.E. (2019). Deradicalization and disengagement: Exit programs in Norway and Sweden and addressing neo-Nazi extremism. Journal for Deradicalization, 21, 219-260.
[14] Decision of the District Court No. 2 of the Saryarka District of Astana. (2017, October). Retrieved from https://advokat.kz/72-samyy-pervyy-prigovor-v-kazahstane-po-174-state-uk-rk-saken-baykenov.html.
[15] Ellington, T. (2024). Perceptions on the effects of religious programs on criminal behavior among juveniles. Minneapolis: Walden University.
[16] European Council Framework Decision No. 2008/913/JHA “On Combating Certain Forms and Expressions of Racism and Xenophobia by Means of Criminal Law”. (2008, November). Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dec_framw/2008/913/ oj/eng.
[17] Farrell, W.B., Burnashev, R., Azizi, R., & Babadjanov, B. (2021). Processes of reintegrating Central Asian returnees from Syria and Iraq. Washington: United States Institute of Peace.
[18] Fox, J. (2021). What is religious freedom and who has it? Social Compass, 68(3), 321-341. doi: 10.1177/00377686211012368.
[19] Holbrook, D., & Horgan, J. (2019). Terrorism and ideology: Cracking the nut. Perspectives on Terrorism, 13(6), 2-15.
[20] Hunko, L. (2023). Strategy for combating illegal armed formations: Content, components, evolution. Democratic Governance, 16(2), 66-78. doi: 10.23939/dg2023.02.
[21] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. (1966, December). Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/ccpr.pdf.
[22] Ishfaq, N.M., Yasin, N.S., Riaz, N.M., & Riaz, N.K. (2024). Navigating legal pluralism: A comparative analysis of Islamic law and secular legal systems in Pakistan. International Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 1(2), 1-17. doi: 10.62951/ijsw.v1i2.16.
[23] Ismailov, V. (2025). Global ranking: Kazakhstan has the third-highest unemployment rate in Eurasia. Retrieved from https://timesca.com/ilostat-survey-kazakhstan-has-the-third-highest-unemployment-rate-in-eurasia/.
[24] Johnson, E. (2019). Apostasy, human rights and hate crime in England and Wales: A mixed methods study. SSRN. doi: 10.2139/ ssrn.3475161.
[25] Kalmyrzaev, B.A., Bitemirov, K.T., Shalkharov, Y.S., Imanbekova, M.M., Paridinova, A.E., Moldaliev, M.M., & Salayev, N.S. (2021). Problems and prospect of countering religious extremism in the Kazakhstan Republic including problems of bioterrorism in religional extremism. Journal of Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues, 24(4).
[26] Kazakhstan took 67th place out of 163 in the rating of the most peaceful countries. (2021). Retrieved from https://finprom.kz/ru/article/v-rejtinge-samyh-mirolyubivyh-stran-kazahstan-zanyal-67-e-mesto-iz-163.
[27] King, R.D. (2019). Hate crimes: Perspectives on offending and the law. In M.D. Krohn, N. Hendrix, G.P. Hall & A.J. Lizotte (Eds.), Handbook on crime and deviance (pp. 437-458). Cham: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-20779-3_22.
[28] Kusack, W. (2023). In search of a welcoming environment for religions in the “New Kazakhstan”. Review of Faith & International Affairs, 22(1), 87-96. doi: 10.1080/15570274.2023.2261709.
[29] Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 31 “On Countering to Extremism”. (2005, February). Retrieved from https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z050000031_.
[30] Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 416 “On Counteracting Terrorism”. (1999, July). Retrieved from https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z990000416_.
[31] Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 483-IV “On Religious Activities and Religious Associations”. (2011, October). Retrieved from https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z1100000483.
[32] Litvak, S., Kivivuori, J., & Kaakinen, M. (2024). Preventing religion-based hate crime victimization among youth: A systematic review of personal, collective, and policy responses. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 25(5), 3696-3712. doi: 10.1177/15248380241257198.
[33] Lösel, F., Bender, D., Jugl, I., & King, S. (2020). Resilience against political and religious extremism, radicalization, and related violence: A systematic review of studies on protective factors. In D. Weisburd, E.U. Savona, B. Hasisi & F. Calderoni (Eds.), Understanding recruitment to organized crime and terrorism (pp. 55-84). Cham: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-36639-1_3.
[34] Lytvyn, V., & Ahmadov, V. (2024). Problematic aspects of at the scene police work with victims of terrorist acts on the territory of Ukraine. Law Journal of the National Academy of Internal Affairs, 14(2), 52-60. doi: 10.56215/naia-chasopis/2.2024.52.
[35] Makhambetsaliyev, D.B., Sagynbekova, G.M., Abdykadyr, U.B., Alimova, E.A., & Smanova, A.B. (2024). Constitutional law-making in the U.S. Supreme Court. Public Integrity, 26(4), 473-484. doi: 10.1080/10999922.2023.2282261.
[36] Mazya, T.M., Ridho, K., & Irfani, A. (2024). Religious and cultural diversity in Indonesia: Dynamics of acceptance and conflict in a multidimensional perspective. International Journal of Current Science Research and Review, 7(7), 4932-4945. doi: 10.47191/ijcsrr/v7-i7-32.
[37] McDermott, R.N., & Baizakova, Z. (2015). Reassessing the barriers to Islamic radicalization in Kazakhstan. Carlisle Barracks: Strategic Studies Institute.
[38] Observatory on Intolerance and Discrimination against Christians. (2024). OIDAC Europe report 2024. Retrieved from https:// www.intoleranceagainstchristians.eu/publications/oidac-report-2024.
[39] Omenma, J.T., Hendricks, C., & Ajaebili, N.C. (2020). al-Shabaab and Boko Haram: Recruitment strategies. Peace and Conflict Studies, 27(1), article number 2. doi: 10.46743/1082-7307/2020.1460.
[40] Penal Code of Pakistan. (1860, October). Retrieved from https://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/legislation/1860/actXLVof1860. html.
[41] Rowe, T.J. (2021). Training the ‘Great Steppe Army’: Preparing Kazakhstan’s ground forces to meet contemporary threats. Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 34(3), 331-356. doi: 10.1080/13518046.2021.1992705.
[42] Sas, M., Ponnet, K., Reniers, G., & Hardyns, W. (2020). The role of education in the prevention of radicalization and violent extremism in developing countries. Sustainability, 12(6), article number 2320. doi: 10.3390/su12062320.
[43] Seitakhmetova, N., Aliyarov, E., Zhandossova, S., Tolen, Z., & Nurov, M. (2024). Counteracting religious extremism in youth environments: World experience and Kazakhstan. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 15(3), 257-288.
[44] Sharipova, D., & Beissembayev, S. (2021). Causes of violent extremism in Central Asia: The case of Kazakhstan. Studies in
Conflict and Terrorism, 46(9), 1702-1724. doi: 10.1080/1057610x.2021.1872163.
[45] Suyatno, S., Hayati, F.N., & Susatya, E. (2020). Strengthening of religious character education based on school culture in the Indonesian secondary school. European Educational Researcher, 3(3), 87-100. doi: 10.31757/euer.331.
[46] Tiilikainen, M., & Mankkinen, T. (2020). Prevention of violent radicalization and extremism in Finland: The role of religious literacy. In T. Sakaranaho, T. Aarrevaara & J. Konttori (Eds.), The challenges of religious literacy: The case of Finland (pp. 67-78). Cham: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-47576-5_6.
[47] Tungatova, U., & Kurmanaliyeva, A. (2023). Prevention of religious extremism in Kazakhstan. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 13(2), 82-89. doi: 10.36941/jesr-2023-0033.
[48] Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (1948, December). Retrieved from https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/2021/03/udhr.pdf.
[49] Vatral, А. (2023). Legal regulation of combating organised crime in Ukraine: Сurrent state and areas of improvement. 3cientific Journal of the National Academy of Internal Affairs, 28(3), 17-27. doi: 10.56215/naia-herald/3.2023.17.
[50] Vidino, L., & Marone, F. (2022). Jihadist attacks in the West: 2014-2022. Retrieved from https://extremism.gwu.edu/sites/g/files/zaxdzs5746/files/Jihadist-Attacks-in-the-West_Vidino-Marone_September-2022.pdf.
[51] Vieth-Ditlmann, K. (2025). Policing ‘online radicalization’: The framing of Europol’s Internet referral unit. In B. Wagner, M.C. Kettemann, K. Vieth-Ditlmann & S. Montgomery (Eds.), Research handbook on human rights and digital technology (pp. 262-287). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. doi: 10.4337/9781035308514.00022.
[52] Yilmaz, I. (2019). Nation building, Islamic law and unofficial legal pluralism: The cases of Turkey and Pakistan. In N. Oberauer, Y. Prief & U. Qubaja (Eds.), Legal pluralism in Muslim contexts (pp. 109-138). Leeds: Brill. doi: 10.1163/9789004398269_007.
[53] Zaiets, K., Muravska, Y., Slipchenko, T., Kaniuka, V., & Melnyk, I. (2024). The etymology of the concept “military conflict” as a determinant of political orientation. Law, Policy and Security, 2(2), 39-51. doi: 10.62566/lps/2.2024.39.