Social and Legal Studios
ISSN 2617-4162
e-ISSN 2617-4170
Publisher: Lviv State University of Internal Affairs
Abstract
Human trafficking is a severe transnational issue in Central Asia, where vulnerable populations, particularly women, children, and migrant workers, are frequently trafficked for sexual exploitation, forced labour, and other forms of abuse. The purpose of this study was to examine the dynamics of transnational crime in the Central Asian region and to systematise recommendations for minimising the risks of human trafficking. This study employed statistical data in addition to legislative documents, reports from civil society organisations, and regional mapping studies, utilised qualitative analysis and statistical methods to assess the efficacy of anti-trafficking initiatives in Central Asia. The research findings revealed considerable variations in anti-trafficking initiatives across Central Asian countries. Kazakhstan has achieved significant advancements in victim support systems and legislative frameworks, whilst Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan persist in facing challenges related to insufficient victim identification and assistance infrastructure. Trafficking routes in the area are varied, with victims being exploited in neighbouring countries like Russia and Turkey, as well as more distant locations such as the United Arab Emirates and India. Women and children are the most susceptible demographics, with an excessive proportion of trafficking victims emerging from economically deprived homes. The research highlighted the critical necessity for increased inter-agency collaboration, refined data-gathering systems, and robust victim protection protocols. Moreover, it underscored the necessity of using international best practices to efficiently address human trafficking throughout Central Asia. These findings can inform policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and non- governmental organisations in Central Asia and abroad to formulate more focused, coordinated strategies for combatting human trafficking, especially through enhanced victim identification and protection mechanisms
Keywords: modern slavery; modernisation of legislation; public administration; cotton harvesting; sexual exploitation; complex threats
Suggested citation
[1] 60 per cent of citizens of Central Asia found in slavery are women. (2022). Retrieved from https://cabar.asia/en/60-per-cent-of-citizens-of-central-asia-found-in-slavery-are-women?pdf=54899.
[2] A law against human trafficking will appear for the first time in Kazakhstan. (2024). Retrieved from https://liter.kz/zakon-protiv-torgovli-liudmi-vpervye-poiavitsia-v-kazakhstane-1710919182/.
[3] A training seminar on preventing human trafficking in Kyrgyzstan takes place in Batken oblast. (2023). Retrieved from https://mvd.gov.kg/rus/news/2147.
[4] Bassarova, O. (2023). Tokayev suggested developing a special law to address the problem of trafficking in human beings. Retrieved from https://kz.kursiv.media/2023-03-29/lsbs-zakon-torgovlyaludmi/
[5] Bekmagambetov, A., Seitayeva, Z., & Ismagulova, A. (2021). Problems of modeling “Anti-Trafficking” criminal policy in the context of international standards and foreign experience. The Bulletin of Academy of Law Enforcement Agencies, 4(22), 41-47. doi: 10.52425/25187252_2021_22_41.
[6] Bekmagambetov, A.B. (2021). Anti-trafficking policy in the public policy system. Bulletin of the Karaganda University. Law Series, 4(104), 89-96. doi: 10.31489/2021l4/89-96.
[7] Bryant, K., & Landman, T. (2020). Combatting human trafficking since Palermo: What do we know about what works? Journal of Human Trafficking, 6(2), 119-140. doi: 10.1080/23322705.2020.1690097.
[8] Buribayev, Y., & Khamzina, Zh. (2023). Trafficking and exploitation of labor migrants: Analysis of the situation in Kazakhstan. Bulletin of Kazakh National Pedagogical University named after Abai Series Jurisprudence, 3(73), 40-55. doi: 10.51889/2959-6181.2023.73.3.006.
[9] CDTC: Global dataset. (2024). Retrieved from https://www.ctdatacollaborative.org/map.
[10] Criminal Code of the Republic of Tajikistan. (2015, December). Retrieved from https://www.warnathgroup.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Tajikistan-Criminal-Code.pdf.
[11] Criminal Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan. (1994, September). Retrieved from https://www.vertic.org/media/National%20Legislation/Uzbekistan/UZ_Criminal_Code.pdf.
[12] Critelli, F.M., Lewis, L.A., Yalim, A.C., & Ibraeva, J. (2020). Labor migration and its impact on families in Kyrgyzstan: A qualitative study. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 22(3), 907-928. doi: 10.1007/s12134-020-00781-2.
[13] Dandurand, Y. (2024). Criminalizing human trafficking has not made a difference: A law enforcement failure. Journal of Human Trafficking, 10(2), 383-387. doi: 10.1080/23322705.2024.2303266.
[14] Esson, D., Ansie, V., & Ameke, T. (2023). Human trafficking interventions (HTI): A rapid documentary analysis of Central Asia region’s (CAR) efforts. Ilomata International Journal of Social Science, 4(2), 221-236. doi: 10.52728/ijss.v4i2.726
[15] Fernández-Villarán, A., & Cuenca, M. (2023). Innovation in tourism distribution ecosystem: The roles of intermediaries and new agents. Journal of Tourism Analysis, 30(2), 120-158. doi: 10.53596/v1zyzt16.
[16] Genova, A., & Castelli, V. (2022). Human trafficking in modern world. In The Palgrave handbook of global social problems (pp. 1-18). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-68127-2_39-1.
[17] Gibson, C. (2024). Transnational organized crime in the Caribbean. In The Palgrave handbook of Caribbean criminology (pp. 75- 93). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-52378-6_5.
[18] Improving protection for victims of forced labour and human trafficking. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.coe.int/en/web/commissioner/-/improving-protection-for-victims-of-forced-labour-and-human-trafficking.
[19] Izbasova, A.B., Tlepbergenov, O.N., Rakhmetova, T.A., Konysbay, B.M., & Bazilova, А.А. (2021). Legal regulation of human trafficking issues in the field of public security. Bulletin of the Kazakh National University. Series Legal, 100(4), 63-71. doi: 10.26577/JAPJ.2021.v100.i4.08.
[20] Kakar, M.M., & Yousaf, F.N. (2021). Gender, political and economic instability, and trafficking into forced marriage. Women & Criminal Justice, 32(3), 277-287. doi: 10.1080/08974454.2021.1926403.
[21] Kelly, L. (2005). Fertile fields: Trafficking in persons in Central Asia. Vienna: International Organization for Migration.
[22] Khalbarova, D., & Ilibarova, O. (2024). A stand-alone law on combating trafficking in human beings will appear in Kazakhstan. Retrieved from https://www.zakon.kz/sobytiia/6428145-samostoyatelnyy-zakon-o-protivodeystvii-torgovle-lyudmi-poyavitsya-v-kazakhstane.html.
[23] Khamzin, A., Buribayev, Y., & Sartayeva, K. (2022). Prevention of human trafficking crime: A view from Kazakhstan and Central Asian countries. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 17(1), 34-53. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.4756088.
[24] Khamzina, Z., Buribayev, Y., Yermukanov, Y., & Alshurazova, A. (2020). Is it possible to achieve gender equality in Kazakhstan: Focus on employment and social protection. International Journal of Discrimination and the Law, 20(1), 5-20. doi: 10.1177/1358229120927904.
[25] Kuznetsova, L., Kuznetsov, V., & Matiushenko, O. (2024). Peculiarities of legal assessment of aiding and abetting the aggressor state: National and international dimensions. Law Journal of the National Academy of Internal Affairs, 14(2), 41-51. doi: 10.56215/naia-chasopis/2.2024.41.
[26] Kyzdarbekova, B.Z., & Orazbekova, А.K. (2022). To the question of criminal legal support of counteraction to human trafficking. Scientific and Legal Journal “Bulletin of the Institute of Legislation and Legal Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan”, 3(70). doi: 10.52026/2788-5291_2022_70_3_110.
[27] Laruelle, M. (2023). Russia at war and the Islamic world. Russie.NEI.Visions, 127.
[28] Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan No. 110-VIII “On Countering Human Trafficking”. (2024, July). Retrieved from https://adilet.zan.kz/eng/docs/Z2400000110.
[29] Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan No. 154 “On Combating Trafficking in Persons”. (2008, April). Retrieved from https://sherloc.unodc.org/cld/uploads/res/document/law-on-combating-trafficking-in-persons_html/TIP_Law_Uzbekistan_ENG.pdf.
[30] Lee, H., Geynisman-Tan, J., Hofer, S., Anderson, E., Caravan, S., & Titchen, K. (2021). The impact of human trafficking training on healthcare professionals’ knowledge and attitudes. Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development, 8. doi: 10.1177/23821205211016523.
[31] Loibl, E., & Mackenzie, S. (2023). Organisation of crime in the transnational adoption market. In Organized crime in the 21st century (pp. 25-41). Cham: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-21576-6_3.
[32] Ortega, J., Gordon, M., Gordon-Achebe, K., & Robitz, R. (2022). Survivors of human trafficking. In Diversity in action: Case studies in cultural psychiatry (pp. 33-56). Cham: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-85401-0_3.
[33] Praditama, I.B.M., & Ranawijaya, I.B.E. (2023). The role of international law in preventing and addressing human trafficking from the perspective of the right to privacy under ICCPR. Policy, Law, Notary and Regulatory Issues, 2(3), 198-207. doi: 10.55047/ polri.v2i3.620.
[34] Program to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings in the Kyrgyz Republic for 2022-2025. (2022). Retrieved from https:// www.gov.kg/ru/post/s/21230-2022-2025-zhyldarga-kyrgyz-respublikasynda-adamdardy-satuuga-karshy-krsh-boyuncha-programma-bekitildi.
[35] Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children. (2000, December). Retrieved from https://respect.international/the-protocol-to-prevent-suppress-and-punish-trafficking-in-persons-especially-women-and-children-un-trafficking-in-persons-protocol/.
[36] Public Law of USA No. 106-386 “Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000”. (2000, October). Retrieved from https://chrissmith.house.gov/lawsandresolutions/tvpa.htm.
[37] Resolution of the Government of the Republic of Tajikistan No. 55 “On the National Plan to Combat Trafficking in Persons in the Republic of Tajikistan for 2022-2024”. (2022, February). Retrieved from https://www.adlia.tj/show_doc.fwx?rgn=141473.
[38] SAARC Convention on Prevention and Combating Trafficking of Women and Children for Prostitution. (2014, August). Retrieved from https://www.ilo.org/resource/saarc-convention-prevention-and-combating-trafficking-women-and-children.
[39] Safe Migration in Central Asia. (2019). Retrieved from https://winrock.org/projects/safe-migration-in-central-asia/.
[40] Seitaeva, Z.S., & Balashov, R.S. (2020). Experience of the Republic of Uzbekistan on the issues of countering human trafficking. Law Enforcement Academy Bulletin, 16(2), 31-42.
[41] Shashkina, A. (2022). No one has been dealing with the problem for years – head of the Interior Ministry on human trafficking in Kazakhstan. Retrieved from https://kz.kursiv.media/2022-11-02/godami-problemoj-nikto-ne-zanimalsya-glava-mvd-o-torgovle-ljudmi-v-kazahstane/.
[42] Shcherbatiuk, V., Kuras, D., & Sokur, Yu. (2024). The problem of slavery and human trafficking: International law and scientific discourse. Scientific Journal of the National Academy of Internal Affairs, 29(1), 43-54. doi: 10.56215/naia-herald/1.2024.43.
[43] Shin, R.J., Oberlin, A.M., Rigby, F., & Chelmow, F. (2020). Educating physicians on sex trafficking: Who receives our empathy and whom do we blame? Journal of Human Trafficking, 8(3), 265-281. doi: 10.1080/23322705.2020.1808776.
[44] Spytska, L. (2023). Sexual disorders in women: Causes and their correction. Gaceta Medica de Caracas, 131(4), 933-943. doi: 10.47307/GMC.2023.131.4.15.
[45] Trafficking in Persons Report. (2023). Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Trafficking-in-Persons-Report-2023_Introduction-Additional-Pagesv4_FINAL.pdf.
[46] Trafficking in Persons Report: Kazakhstan. (2023). Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-trafficking-in-persons-report/kazakhstan/.
[47] Trafficking in Persons Report: Kyrgyzstan. (2023). Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-trafficking-in-persons-report/kyrgyzstan/
[48] Trafficking in Persons Report: Tajikistan. (2023). Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-trafficking-in-persons-report/tajikistan.
[49] Trafficking in Persons Report: Tajikistan. (2024). Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-trafficking-in-persons-report/tajikistan/.
[50] Trafficking in Persons Report: Turkmenistan. (2023). Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-trafficking-in-persons-report/turkmenistan.
[51] Trafficking in Persons Report: Uzbekistan. (2023). Retrieved from https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-trafficking-in-persons-report/uzbekistan.
[52] UN helps Central Asian countries fight human trafficking. (2023). Retrieved from https://news.un.org/ru/story/2023/08/1443477.
[53] UN: Human Trafficking. (2024). Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-Trafficking/Human-Trafficking. html.
[54] UNODC is the leading entity within the United Nations system to address the criminal elements of human trafficking. (2021). Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/crime.html.
[55] UNODC. (2024). Global report on trafficking in persons. Retrieved from https://reliefweb.int/report/world/global-report-trafficking-persons-2024.
[56] Utepov, D., & Karimov, B. (2022). Problematic issues of countering human trafficking in social networks in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Society and Innovation, 3(9), 16-23. doi: 10.47689/2181-1415-vol3-iss9/S-pp16-23.
[57] Winrock International. (2023). Combating trafficking in children in Kazakhstan. Retrieved from https://winrock.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/designed-edited-version-rus.pdf.
[58] Zenz, A. (2023a). Coercive labor in the cotton harvest in the Xinjiang Uyghur autonomous region and Uzbekistan: A comparative analysis of state-sponsored forced labor. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 56(2), 1-32. doi: 10.1525/cpcs.2023.1822939.
[59] Zenz, A. (2023b). Measuring non-internment state-imposed forced labor in Xinjiang and Central Asia: An assessment of ILO measurement guidelines. Journal of Human Trafficking. doi: 10.1080/23322705.2023.2270366.